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Glossary This Glossary provides definitions for key terms used in the previous chapters. Most definitions include other key terms. Key terms used in the definition of other key terms are in bold type. This lets you go to any term you encounter and find its meaning. In addition, other glossaries of social research and statistical terms are available on Web sites. The names and Web addresses of some of these Glossaries are listed under "Aids - Internet Resources" at the end of Chapter 17 Abstract (abstraction) - a mental image of something that people experience and agree to describe in a certain way; concepts for example, are abstractions derived from observations and defined in scientific terms; abstract is the opposite of concrete, which refers to the specific things we experience and can observe (An) abstract: a short summary of a publication, usually about 250 words Alternative hypothesis: the original hypothesis formulated at the beginning of a research project Analysis: the process of summarizing and organizing data to establish the results of an investigation Analysis of variance: a statistical test used to determine if differences among three or more means are statistically significant Anonymity: the assurance given to respondents that no one, not even the investigator will be able to identify the respondent or any data supplied by or about the respondent Area sample: see cluster sample Assessment research: research undertaken to see if a program is achieving the objectives set for it; also referred to as evaluation research Association (or associated): refers to the extent to which one variable is related to another variable; a measure of how changes in one variable influence changes in another variable Attribute: the elements that make up a variable; may be expressed either in words (male or female) or in numbers Available data: data that already exists in the form of responses to previous surveys, as mass media material, or as other written, audio, video, or cultural artifacts Average: a loose term used in everyday language to describe one form of the central tendency of a distribution; statisticians use mean in place of average; two other averages or "typical" scores for a distribution are the median and the mode 
Back translation: the translation of a document that was translated into a new language and then back to the original language Bar chart: a graphic way of presenting data in which bars representing the attributes of a variable are arranged along the X axis of a graph and the height of the bars, as measured on the Y axis, show the frequency for each attribute; also known as a histogram Bias: any tendency to see events in a certain way that causes distortions in the collection or analysis of data or in drawing conclusions from findings Bimodal distribution: a distribution with two modes Bivariate analysis: the simultaneous analysis of two variables; bivatiate analysis is generally done to find the extent of association between two variables Bogardus social distance scale: a measurement technique for finding how closely respondents say they are willing to associate with members of some designated group; social distance scales are used to measure attitudes toward some group of persons Browser: an Internet -based service that allows a computer to connect with the Internet Browsing: casual examination of books or other materials in search of relevant materials; one can also browse among Web sites, using links on sites to move from one site to another; this form of browsing is called surfing
Call back - the act of making a second or third visit to a respondent to obtain an interview Case study: a detailed investigation of a person, organization, village or other entity for the purpose of understanding the entity in all its complexity as fully as possible Casual observation: observation of behavior in which actions are recorded in narrative form; stands in contrast to structured observation where observations are noted in terms of pre-defined categories Categorical variable: a variable whose attributes form some kind of a classification; the categories used form the elements of the classification; male and female, for example, would be categories of the classification of persons based on gender; categorical variables are also referred to as qualitative variables Causal hypothesis testing: testing a hypothesis under carefully controlled conditions, as in a true experiment, to exclude the influence of any variable other than the independent or experimenta l variable upon the dependent variable; under these conditions, changes in the dependent variable are assumed to be caused by the independent or experimental variable Cause and effect (or causal relationship): refers to a relationship where one variable is thought to be solely or substantially responsible for changes in another variable; see the definition of causal hypothesis testing CD-ROM: stands for "compact disk read only memory," a form of electronic storage for music, data files and other information; is "read" or played with the help of a computer Cell: a part of a table identified by the intersection of a column and a row of the table
Census: collection of data from all the members of some population; also called enumeration Central tendency: measures of the degree to which scores are clustered around the mean of a distribution Chart format: used when the same question is repeated with the same response categories; example, when asking for the ages of all members of a household Chain sample: see network sampling Chance selection: see random selection Chi square: a statistical test for determining whether two variables are independent of one another; chi square is based on comparing differences between observed and expected frequencies for various cells in a table Chronbach's alpha: used in item analysis to select items that are highly associated with the other items in a composite measure; items whose scores correlate moderately with other items are assumed to be measuring the same thing and, therefore, the scores can be safely combined to provide a composite measure Class interval width: closely related to class limits; any whole number (22, 51, 175, etc) is really the midpoint of range that extends 0.5 below and 0.5 above the number, thus the interval of 20-29 has a class width of 19.49 to 29.49 with 25.0 as its midpoint Class limits: the range of numbers that are created when continuous data are combined to form broader categories or intervals; for example, exact ages can be combined into intervals, such as 20-29, 30-39, etc.; the ten year categories are the class limits for the age intervals Classical experiment: a technique for testing hypotheses under carefully controlled conditions, where the experimental or independent variable is administered to the experimental group but not to an equivalent control group and measurements of the dependent variable are compared between the two groups following the experiment; also called the true experiment
Closed item: a question or item with a fixed set of responses; respondents are asked to select the response that most closely matches their views Cluster sampling: a probability sampling design based on random selection of successive clusters or units with a simple random sample used in the final cluster to form the final sample; also referred to as an area or multistage sample Codebook: a record book used to provide information about variables, their attributes, and their locations in a data file; a codebook is used to plan analyses of variables and to interpret the results of analyses Code transfer sheet: a sheet of paper with columns for recording the attributes of variables and with rows for each respondent or case; the code for each response or observation is placed at the intersection of the column for the attribute and the row for a particular respondent Coding: the process of assigning numbers to represent the attributes of indicators; coding is a necessary step before data can be entered into a computer data file because computers can only "read" numbers Coefficient of correlation: a statistical measure of association between two quantitative variables; a coefficient of correlation can vary between ±1.00 Coefficient of determination: the squared value of the coefficient of correlation; it indicates the percentage of the variation in dependent variable accounted for by the effect of the independent variable Coefficient of reproducibility: the measure of the extent to which responses to a set of items form a Guttman scale; a coefficient of.90 or higher is the generally accepted coefficient Comparison analysis: a
research design based on two or more independent samples,
used to estimate how much difference there is among the samples in terms
of variables being measured
Composite measure (or score): scores or other measures based on two or more indicators; examples are scales and indexes, each of which consist of at least two items Computer analysis: analysis of data using a statistical software analysis package stored in a computer Concept - an abstract description we use to describe things that are real to us but that we cannot experience directly; mental images we share and use to describe things we talk about Conceptualization: the process of defining concepts central to an investigation; also includes specifying and defining dimensions of a concept for which measurements will be developed Conclusion: the most general statement derived from the results of an investigation; the investigator draws conclusions from the analysis of data collected for the investigation Concrete: refers to specific things we can experience directly; the specific, identifiable chair you are sitting on is considered concrete; in contrast, the idea of a chair is abstract Concurrent validity: a method for estimating the validity of a measuring instrument, such as a scale, based on showing that scores on the instrument differentiate between persons known to differ in the variable being measured; example, in developing a scale to measure attitudes toward some group, the scores of persons known to hold strong positive and negative views toward that group would be compared; if the mean scores of the two groups were substantially different, the scale would be assumed to have demonstrated concurrent validity Confidence interval: the range of values that contain the population parameter at a specified level of confidence; if a mean is estimated to lie between 5.05 and 8.15, the confidence interval is 5.05 to 8.15 Confidence level: see level of confidence Confidentiality: the assurance given a respondent that even though the investigator can identify the respondent his or her responses, the investigator will protect the respondent's identity respondent Construct: another term used for concept; a construct is a definition of a variable we intend to investigate; the term is used because, as social scientists, we construct a definition of a variable for the purposes of measurement
Contamination: occurs when members of a control group are accidentally or otherwise exposed to the experimental variable Content analysis: a method for analyzing the content of written or verbal material; most often used in the analysis of mass media materials; based on development of a set of categories for the coding the content of the material Content validity: a form of validity based on how well the content of an indicato r reflects the concept it is intended to measure Contingency question: a question or item used to select respondents for further questions, depending on how they answer a preceding question; for example, before asking persons which political party they belong to, they could be asked if they now belong to a party, only those who answered "yes" would then be asked for the name of the party; also called a filter question Contingency table: see cross classification table Continuous variable: a variable whose attributes can assume increasingly smaller or larger values; examples are age or income, each of which can be measured in smaller and smaller amounts Control group: the group in an experiment that is not exposed to the experimental or independent variable but is selected to match the experimental group, which is exposed to the experimental or independent variable, in all other ways Control variable: a variable that is held constant to remove its influence on other variables Controlled comparison: a multivariable analysis in which a control variable is introduced to see if it causes changes in a relationship between other variables Controlled setting: any situation created by an investigator for the purpose of hypothesis testing in which selected variables are controlled to minimize their influence on the outcome of the research Convenience sample: a nonprobability form of sampling based on collecting data from who ever is available or encountered; also called a haphazard sample Copy: the process of making a copy of material from a data file or Web site by using the copy function of a computer program
Correlation (coefficient of): a statistical measure of the empirical association between two indicators; also referred to as the coefficient of correlation; values for correlation coefficients vary between ±1.00 Criterion validity: the extent to which an indicator for a concep t is associated with an eternal criterion; for example, the validity of a test given in secondary school for predicting success in the university is shown by its ability to predict grade point averages at the end of the freshman year at the university; also referred to as predictive validity Cross classification: analysis based on showing the relationship between two variables in categorical form; done in the form of bivariate or multivariate tables Cross classification table (cross-tabulation table): a table showing the relationship between two variables; the data for one variable is displayed in columns and data for the other variable in rows of the table; also referred to as a contingency table Cross products: the products of the scores of two variables, required for the calculation of the coefficient of correlation and other statistics Cross-sectional design: a design used for surveys; based on use of a probability sample so that the sample represents a cross-section of a population Cumulative frequency distribution: a distribution in which the frequency for each attribute is added to the next higher or lower attribute in the distribution, beginning with the lowest attribute and adding down the distribution or with the highest attribute and adding up the distribution; cumulative frequency distributions are useful for saying how many respondents answered above or below a certain attribute Cumulative percentage distribution: a distribution in which the percentage for each attribute is added to the next higher or lower attribute in the distribution, beginning with the lowest attribute and adding down the distribution or with the highest attribute and adding up the distribution; cumulative percentage distributions are useful for saying what percentage of respondents answered above or below a certain attribute Curvilinear relationship: a relationship between two variables in which the direction of the relation moves in one direction and then reverses; for example, infant mortality rates are high for the youngest mothers, then decline as mothers are older, only to rise again for the oldest mothers; also called a nonlinear relationship
Data: the specific bits of information collected by a scientifically valid method of collection; can be in the form of observation, by means of an experiment, or by asking persons questions as part of a survey Data collection: the planned, systematic process of obtaining data to answer a research question Data cleaning: the process of reviewing codes for attribute s entered into a computer data file to find and correct errors Database: a searchable computer-based compilation of information on a topic or covering a discipline Data entry: the process of entering codes into a data file stored in a computer; data entry must be done according to the rules of the software program being used Data file: coded data stored in a computer according to locations specified in a codebook Date modification: changing or adding data after the initial data were coded; examples include developing composite scores or recoding open-ended responses to form new categories Deductive logic: a form of reasoning from a general principle or statement, often based on a theoretical framework; for example, derivation of a hypothesis from a theoretical framework Degrees of freedom: a value used in interpreting tests of statistical significance; degrees of freedom are calculated in different ways for different tests of significance
Dependent variable: the variable that depends on or is influenced by another variable; dependent variables are what researchers seek to understand and explain Descriptive research: investigations whose purpose is to provide precise descriptions of variables and their relationships; surveys are frequently used as designs for descriptive research Descriptive statistical analysis: analysis of data to describe the characteristics of sample or for measuring relationships between variables; examples include measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode), measures of variability (variance and standard deviation) or measures of association (correlation, chi square) Descriptive statistics: statistics used to describe features of distributions of scores, such as means and standard deviations Design: a plan for the collection and analysis of data; includes selection of a method of collecting data, ways of measuring variables, a sampling plan, and plans for the analysis of the data to be collected Dimension: a specified and defined aspect or component of a concept selected for measurement; dimensions of a concept are identified by the process of c onceptualization Direct relationship: see positive relationship Discrete variable: a variable whose attributes cannot be separated into smaller units; for example, gender exists in only two forms - male or female Distribution: an ordered set of numbers showing how many times each occurred, from the lowest to the highest number or the reverse Download: the act of copying information from a computer-based file, such as those found on Web sites, to the hard or floppy drive of a computer Draft questionnaire: the form of a questionnaire ready for pretesting; a draft questionnaire is usually revised based on information obtained during one or more pretests
Ecological fallacy: an error in drawing a conclusion about the behavior or attitudes of individuals when data are collected at the level of groups to which individuals may belong Edge coding: a way of showing codes for responses in which the codes assigned to responses are written in the margin of the questionnaire opposite the item to which they refer Email: stands for "electronic mail," a form of communication using the Internet as a way of connecting to persons you wish to communicate with Email survey: a survey conducted by sending a questionnaire by email to a list or sample of email addresses; respondents are asked to complete and return the questionnaire by email Empirical: refers to using one's senses (sight, hearing, touch, smelling, and tasting) to learn about events; empirical research is based on measurement of observable events Empirical generalization: a statement or conclusion based on empirical results; basing a conclusion on a relationship between two indicators is an example of an empirical generalization Empirical relationship: a measured or observed relationship based on data for two variables Empiricism: the use of one's senses to observe and record events external to ourselves; scientific inquiry is based on knowledge derived from observation Enumeration: the process of collecting data from all the members of a population; also called taking a census Equivalent forms measure of reliability: a technique for estimating reliability based on the degree to which results from two equivalent scales or sets of observations are associated; a high level of association indicates high reliability Evaluation research: research undertaken to see whether a program or activity is meeting or has met the objectives set for it Executive summary: a summary of a report prepared to give a brief but complete description of the purpose, methods used, results, and conclusions of an investigation; executive summaries are often written to be understood by persons in administrative positions and those without research training Experiment (experimental design):a research method used to test hypotheses under carefully controlled conditions designed to rule out the effects of any variables other than the experimental treatment; elements of an experiment include random assignment of subjects to either the experimental or the control group, measurement of the dependent variable in both groups at the beginning of the experiment; application of the experimental or independent variable to the experimental but not the control group; measurement of the independent variable at the end of the experiment, and comparison of measures on the dependent variable for the pretest and posttest measurements for both groups; due to the effect of the experimental treatment, larger differences between pretest and posttest measurements are expected in the experimental as opposed to the control group
Experimental effect: in an experiment, the measure of the impact of the experimental treatment upon members of the experimental group; the experimental effect is measured as the difference in pretest and posttest scores in the experimental as opposed to the control group Experimental group: the group of subjects in an experiment who receive the experimental treatment as contrasted to the control group whose members are not subjected to the experimental treatment Experimental mortality: refers to the loss of subjects during the course of an experiment; high experimental mortality undermines the validity of an experiment Experimental treatment: in an experiment, this is the variable that is changed by the experimenter to see its effect on the dependent variable; also called the independent variable or experimental variable Experimental variable: this is another name for experimental treatment Experimenter bias: any potential source of error introduced in an experiment in the way the experiment is designed, the way data are collected and analyzed, or how conclusions are drawn Explanatory research: research undertaken to explain why certain behavior occurs; seeks to provide an explanation for why a relationship exists Exploratory research: research carried out to learn more about a problem or topic; usually undertaken to collect data for designing a descriptive or explanatory investigation External validity: refers to the degree that the results of an experiment can be extended or generalized beyond the conditions of the experiment to conditions in the real world
Face validity: the characteristics of indicators that suggest they are a reasonable measure of a variable; example, questions about whether girls have the same right to education as boys would be reasonably valid indicators of attitudes toward gender equity Field jottings: brief notes taken during an observation session to provide a basis for preparing more extensive field notes Field notes: the full, detailed descriptions, sometimes based on field jottings, used to describe what occurred during an observation period; may also contain hypotheses and tentative explanations for what was observed Field research: generally refers to qualitative research conducted in natural setting, as in a village or other public area Filter question: see contingency question Findings: see results Focus group: a group of persons organized by an investigator to obtain detailed information about a topic or issue through unstructured but guided discussion Formative evaluation: an evaluation carried out during the development of a program; used to produce data for guiding the future development of the program Frequency: the number or count for the occurrence of an attribute of an indicator or variable Frequency distribution: an ordered list of the frequencies or counts for all the attributes of an indicator Frequency matching: a technique for creating equivalent experimental and control groups based on randomly assigning the same number of subjects with similar specific characteristics (so many of one gender, age, ethnic group, etc.) to each group Frequency polygon: see line graph
Generalization: a statement based on the conclusions of a study that extends the conclusions to a broader or more general level Generalizing: is the process, based on logic, for extending conclusions to a broader or more general level; generalizing may be done empirically, as when a statistic, based on a sample, is generalized to the population from which the sample was drawn or may be done theoretically by generalizing from results based on indicators to theoretical relationships among concepts represented by the indicators Grounded theory: development of a theoretical explanation for behavior based on the analysis of data; this approach differs from the traditional deductive derivation of a hypothesis; grounded theory is used most often to generate explanations for behavior observed in qualitative investigations Grouped data: continuous data that are combined into larger intervals or groups; example, instead of analyzing data for the exact ages of respondents, ages could be combined into five or ten-year intervals Guttman scaling: a composite measure in which the scores for items indicate the expected pattern of responses
Halo effect: in interviewing, the tendency to expect to receive a response in a certain (biased) way based on how previous respondents had responded; represents a systematic error in data collection Hand analysis: analysis of data by hand counting; also referred to tallying responses Haphazard sample: see convenience sample Histogram: see bar chart History effect: the influence of events on subjects during the course of an experiment; example, an experiment to change attitudes toward some group could be invalidated by a major public event concerning the group in question Home page: the initial screen or page shown when you visit a Web site; the home page generally has links to other pages on the site and to other related sites Hypothesis: a tentative statement of an expected relationship between variables, usually derived deductively from a theoretical framework; hypotheses may also be based on an empirical findings or conclusions; hypotheses are confirmed (accepted) or disconfirmed (rejected), based on empirical data Hypothesis testing: the process of obtaining empirical data to judge whether a hypothesis is confirmed (accepted) or disconfirmed (rejected); statistical tests are used in making this judgment Hypothetical-inductive process: based on the combined use of deductive logic to derive a hypothesis followed by use of inductive logic to test whether the hypothesis is confirmed (accepted) or disconfirmed (rejected)
Independent (independence): the lack of a relationship between two variables; when no relationship is observed, the variables are said to be independent Independent variable: the variable that influences the value of another variable (the dependent variable); in an experiment, the independent variable is the one that is manipulated by the experimenter; in an experiment, the independent variable is also called the experimental or treatment variable Index: a composite measure consisting of two or more indicators assumed to be of the same level of intensity; the indicators may be selected because they represent different dimensions of the concept the index is intended to measure Index score: the interim composite score assigned to mixed type responses as a step in deriving a final Guttman score for a set of items: see Guttman scaling Indicator: a variable used to measure a concept or one of its dimensions Indirect relationship: see negative relationship Inductive logic: a form of reasoning used in deriving conclusions from the results of an investigation; reasoning from the bits or separate pieces of data to a conclusion Inequality signs (< and >): are used in reporting the results of statistical tests of significance to show whether the result produced a probability level of "greater than," shown as >, or "less than," shown as <, the .05 or .01 level of significance Inferential statistical analysis: analysis used in conducting statistical tests of significance and for estimating parameters in a population from results obtained from a sampl e drawn form the population Informed consent: the ethical practice of providing respondents or subjects information about a study, particularly any risks involved, so they can make an informed decision about participating in the study Instrumentation effect: any effect the process of measuring has on the data obtained in an investigation; in an experiment, administration of the pretest could affect scores on the posttest, thus posing a threat to the validity of the experiment Inter-analyst reliability: the degree to which the observations or ratings of the main investigator and one or more independent observers or analysts agree with one another; a high level of agreement indicates that the rating or coding categories have a high level of reliability
Internal validity: the degree to which the results of an experiment can be attributed to the effects of the experimental (independent) variable and to no outside variables Internet: the set of telecommunication connections and standards for transmitting information for exchanging information and accessing Web sites from one computer to another throughout the world Internet survey: a form of survey in which questions are posted on a Web site or sent by email to r espondents who reply by completing the questionnaire on the Web site or sending responses by email Interpretation (of results): the process of saying what the results mean; the purpose of interpretation is to develop the conclusions of an investigation or to explain what was found Interrupted time series design: a form of a quasi experiment based on one group, with no control group; the occurrence of some variable is compared over time before and after some event that is thought to have an influence of the variable; example, does a large increase in the tax on cigarettes cause a decline in sales; data for sales before and after the imposition of the tax would be compared to answer this question Interval: the range of numbers used for grouping continuous data Interval measurement: based on an ordered set of categories where the intervals between the categories are assumed to be equal; the numerical values assigned, however, are not based on an absolute zero (examples, intelligence scores. scores on an attitude scale) Interval sample: see systematic random sample
Interview schedule: the set of questions used to interview respondents; today, the term questionnaire is used in place of interview schedule guide or schedule Interviewing: the process of collecting data from respondents by asking questions and recording their responses: in structured interviewing, a questionnaire with a fixed set of questions is used; in unstructured interviewing, questions are asked informally and in any order, more in a conversational style with respondents Intra-analyst reliability: refers to the consistency in recording observations or in coding data by a single investigator Inverse relationship: see negative relationship Item: a question or statement used in a questionnaire to obtain data about a variable Item analysis: the process of determining the extent to which items used in a composite measure are related to one another and how well each item contributes to the composite score; item analysis is used to assess the uni-dimensional or internal validity of a items making up a tentative composite measure
Key informant: a well informed person who provides crucial information in a qualitative investigation; may also review an investigator's description and explanation of events for accuracy and validity; information obtained from key informants is often vital to the success of field research Key terms: words or phrase used in conducting a search of a database or for identifying relevant Web sites; key terms are selected to represent all the ways a concept may be expressed
Level of confidence: estimate of the probability that a parameter lies within a specified range of values; example, a research might report a 95 level of confidence of that the mean for the size of households in a population lies between 8.25 and 10.13 persons Level of measurement: refers to the characteristics of measurements used to collect data; there are four levels of measurement - nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio Level of significance: the probability that the result of a statistical test could be due to sampling error; for example, a result said to be significant at the .05 level indicates that the result could have occurred due to chance variations among sample less than 5 times out of 100 random samples of the same size from the target population; at the .01 level of significance, the result would be considered as occurring due to sampling error less than 1 time out of every 100 samples Likert scale: a composite measure based on a set of responses that range from one extreme to another; example, a scale may have a number of items with response ranging from strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, or strongly disagree Line graph: graphic way to present data in which the frequencies for attributes of a variable are represented by dots at the intersection of the attribute, as arranged along the X axis of the graph, and the values for frequencies, listed along the Y axis; the dots are then connected by a line which creates a line graph; also known as a frequency polygon Line of best fit: in a graph, shows the relationship between two variables; the line of best fit is the line that comes the closest to the largest number of dots representing the values for each pair of attributes for each respondent Link: a connection provided on a Web site to other pages on the site or to a related Web site List of references: the list of the publications, Web sites, or other sources of information cited in a report; references are prepared according to rules and listed alphabetically by the last name of the author; the list of references is placed at the end of the report Longitudinal design: a research design used to measure changes in variables as they occur; data are obtained through successive waves of data collection from the same sample over a period of time
Matrix format: a table format for presenting items that vary in content but all have the same response categories; used frequently in presenting items asking about attitudes or views about some topic or issue Maturation effect: any naturally occurring processes over time that may produce changes in subjects in an experiment; as people grow older, they change in many ways; thus, maturation is a threat to the validity of experiments conducted over long periods of time Mean: one of the three measures of central tendency; the value of the sum of a set of scores divided by the number of scores; in everyday communication, the term average is used to indicate the mean Measure: an indicator or set of indicators used to obtain data for a variable; also referred to as a measuring instrument Measurement: the process of assigning numerical values or qualitative descriptions to attributes of an indicator or variable Measurement error: the difference between the true value for an indicator and its observed value; the observed value is almost always different from the true value because of systematic and random errors that occur during data collection and analysis Measuring instrument: see measure Median: one of three measures of central tendency; the median is the middle score in a distribution Mixed types: in Guttman scaling, mixed types are response patterns that do not match the expected pattern of responses; mixed types represent errors and reduce the coefficient of reproducibility, which is the measure of success in creating a Guttman scale Mode: one of the three measures of central tendency; the mode is the most frequent score in a distribution Mortality effect: refers to the loss of subjects during the course of an experiment; high mortality a threat to the validity of an experiment Multimethod research: an investigation using more than one method of collecting data; for example, an investigator may collect data on the same variables by means of observation, use of a survey, and analysis of available data Multiple measures, before and after design: a quasi-experimental design in which data are obtained for a dependent variable from an experimental group and a nonequivalent control group at several or more time before and after an event; pre- and post-event data for the two groups are compared to see if the event had any effect on the dependent variable Multistage sampling: see cluster sampling Multivariate analysis: the simultaneous analysis of data for three or more variables; may be done in the form of tabular analysis or using statistical tests
Natural setting: any setting where people carryout normal, everyday activities; examples, life in the home, village, office, or other public places Navigating: using navigation buttons and other aids to easily move among pages of a Web site Navigation buttons: buttons or aids on a Web site one can click on to move quickly from one page of the site to another Negative relationship: a relationship between two variables in which changes in one variable are associated with changes in the opposite direction for the other variable; example, years of schooling and fertility are negatively related; as schooling increases, fertility tends to decline Negatively skewed distribution: a distribution in which most scores are located near the low end of the distribution Network sample: a nonprobability sampling technique in which respondents who are initially contacted are asked to identify other members of the target population for inclusion in the investigation; example, in a study of female entrepreneurs, the first entrepreneurs who were interviewed would be asked to name other females entrepreneurs they know who would then be contacted, interviewed, and asked to identify additional female entrepreneurs to be included in the sample, and so on; also called chain or snowball sampling Nominal measurement: the lowest level of measurement; consists of giving names to categories or the attributes making up an indicator; nominal measurement simply indicates that the categories differ; for example, male and female, are the categories or attributes of the variable of gender Nonequivalent control group design: a form of quasi-experimental design based on use of a control group that is thought to be similar to the experimental group but whose members were not selected by random assignment Nonlinear relationship: see curvilinear relationship Nonprobability sampling: - any form of sampling not based on random or chance selection of the members of the sample Nonreactive measure: see unobtrusive measurement Nonsignificant: any result judged to be within the range of chance variation that occurs from random sampling Normal distribution: a distribution with a distinctive bell shape and that has certain specific properties; the most important for researchers is that approximately 68% of the scores in a normal distribution lie within ±1 standard deviation of the mean of the distribution, approximately 95% lie within ±2 standard deviations, and over 99% lie within ±3 standard deviations Null hypothesis: a hypothesis established as a basis for conducting a statistical test of significance; the null hypothesis states that no relationship exists between two variables in the population from which a random sample was drawn; the null hypothesis is accepted or rejected, depending on the level of significance of result of the test Number: refers to the size of a sample or the frequency for the number of cases in an analysis
Objectivity: the ability to observe or reason without personal bias; while objectivity is virtually impossible to attain in all aspects of research, it is an ideal scientists strive to achieve Observation: is the process of using one's senses to perceive and record information about some aspect of the natural world; social scientists observe human interaction and behavior Observational design: a flexible plan for conducting observations; usually the basis of field research Observed value: the value for an indicator obtained as a result of measurement or observation; this is the value we know and almost always differs from the true value of the indicator because of random or systematic errors in data collection One group, pre- and posttest experimental design: a quasi-experimental design based on a single group, with a pretest measurement of a dependent variable, followed by an experimental treatment and then a posttest of the dependent variable; this design is subject to all the threats to internal validity Online: refers to connecting to the Internet, databases or other computer-based sources of information by means of a computer Open-ended items: questions where the respondent answers in his or her own words; a question is followed by blank space where the response is recorded or written; there are no response categories as they are with closed items Operational definition: the definition of a concept as expressed by the way it is measured; the operational definition of social status, for example, is given by the item or items used to measure it Operationalization: the process of developing measurements for indicators Ordinal measurement:a measurement based on ranking or ordering of the attributes of a variable according to some criteria; level of schooling is an example of an ordinal measure - no schooling, primary level, secondary level, post-secondary level Over-generalization: a statement or conclusion that goes beyond any supporting findings or results Over-generalizing: the act of drawing a conclusion that is not supported by data; example, claiming that most men in a town prefer a certain political candidate when data were collected only from men who had attended a college or university and who represent a minority of men in the town
Page: a section of a Web site containing information on one of the topics or issues covered by the site Panel design: a research design based on successive data collection from the same sample to measure changes in variables as they occur; panels are used in longitudinal research Parameter: the value of any indicator in the target population; an enumeration or census produces parameters; generally we can only estimate parameters from statistics that summarize data from a probability sample taken from the target population Participant observation - a qualitative research technique in which the investigator participates substantially in the activities of a group; used to develop an in-depth understanding of the behavior of the group and to see things as members of the group do Participatory rural appraisal (PRA): an approach to data collection in which respondents are encouraged to participate fully in all phases of the research; is similar to and employees many of the features of Rapid Rural Appraisal Paste: the process of adding material taken from a database, Web site, or other source to the document you are writing Percent: a proportion multiplied by 100; literally means per 100; example, if 13 workers out a workforce of 170 were absent on a given day, the proportion absent is 13/170 or .076 and the percent is .076(100) or 7.6% Perfect relationship: a perfect relationship occurs when a coefficient of correlation equals - 1.00 or + 1.00; this means that a certain amount of change in one variable is associated with a specific amount of change in the other variable; in physics, pressure and volume are perfectly related, an increase in pressure is always associated with a decrease in volume; in the social sciences, perfect relationships are seldom found Personal interviewing: refers to the process of collecting data in face-to-face contact with respondents as opposed to conducting telephone interviews Pie chart: a graphic presentation of results in which the slices of a circle (the pie) represent the proportions of each attribute of a variable Population: the entire group of persons or other cases of interest to an investigator; the group to which an investigator may want to generalize from the sample used in an investigation Positive relationship: a relationship between two variables in which they change in the same direction; as one increases or decreases in value so does the other; also called a direct relationship Positively skewed distribution: a distribution in which most scores are toward the high end of the distribution Posttest measurement: in an experiment, measurement of the dependen t variable taken at the end of the experiment
Precision matching: a technique for establishing equivalent experimental and control groups by randomly assigning subjects with exactly matching characteristics to one group or the other; example, for two persons of the same gender and age one is randomly selected for the experimental group, the other to the control group; this process would be repeated for each set of persons with matching characteristics; precision matching is the strongest basis for creating equivalent experimental and control groups Precoding responses: the process of assigning numbers to represent the attributes of an indicator at the time the response categories are created; pre-coding is frequently used with responses for closed items Predictive validity: a way of estimating the validity of a measuring instrument, such as a scale, based on the association of scores on the instrument with a scores for some variable taken at a later time; example, the accumulated grade point average of university students could be used to validate a test for university success given while the students were in secondary school Premature closure: occurs when one draws a conclusion based on insufficient data Pretest: a test to see if a questionnaire is ready for use in a survey; generally based on selecting a small sample similar to the one to be used in the actual survey; all the elements of the questionnaire are tested, from the introduction to analysis of responses to obtained Pretest measurement: in an experiment, measurement of the dependent variable at the beginning of the experiment, before the administration of the experimental variable Pretesting: see pretest Print out: the copy of materials printed from a data file, Web site, or a file stored in a computer Probability level: refers to the extent to which the results of a statistical test of significance could be due to random variation that always occurs in sampling (called sampling error); two probability or "p" levels are typically used in reporting results - the .05 and the .01 levels; the .05 level indicates that the result could have occurred due to chance 5 less than 5 times out of every 100 samples; the .01 level indicates that the results could be due to chance not more than once in every 100 samples Probability sampling: any method of sampling based on random or chance selection, where each sampling element or unit has an equal chance of being selected Probe: a technique used in interviewing to encourage a respondent to provide a clearer or more complete response Proportion: a fraction or part of something, expressed as a decimal between 0 and 1.0; example, the proportion of females at a university with 750 females and 4,500 males is 750/4,500 or .166 or .17 Proxies: easily developed substitutes for more precise forms of measurement; proxies are frequently used in Rapid Rural Assessment to provide data quickly and inexpensively in place of indicators that take longer to develop and test for validity and reliability; example, the size or construction materials used in a house could be used as a proxy for family wealth Purposive sampling: a nonprobability method of selecting a sample based on selecting respondents because they are uniquely able to provide needed information; example, to learn about how decisions in villages are made, an investigator might select samples of village leaders and elders
Qualitative analysis: examination of data in the form of verbal descriptions rather than numbers; the purpose of qualitative analysis is to describe behavior and provide an explanation for what was observed Qualitative interviewing: a loose, flexible approach to interviewing based on exploration of topics that are discussed in depth with respondents; respondents are encouraged to talk at length about issues presented by the interviewer Qualitative research: a flexible approach to data collection, based mainly on written descriptions of observed behavior; casual and participant observation and unstructured interviewing are the main ways of conducting qualitative research Qualitative survey: a survey based on use of an unstructured questionnaire; the interviewer uses a conversational style of interaction with r espondents to get responses in the respondents' own words and with emotional content Qualitative variable: a variable described in words or by the names of the categories of which it is composed as opposed to a quantitative variable, which is measured in numbers; gender is an example of a qualitative variable Quantitative analysis: analysis of data in the form of numbers; begins with the analysis of each variable, one at a time (univariate analysis), and may proceed to bivariate and multivariate analyses Quantitative research: based on numerical measurement of indicators; used to establish quantitative relationships among variables Quantitative variable: a variable that is measured in numbers as opposed to a qualitative variable, which is not; the number of faculty of a university is a quantitative variable Quasi-experimental designs are based on some but not all the features of the classical experiment; most quasi-experiments lack complete control over the independent variable, but they have the advantage of estimating the effects of variables under real social conditions; quasi-experiments may be low on internal validity, but are often high on external validity Questionnaire - a set of carefully phrased and tested questions or items prepared for the collection of data; surveys are based on use of questionnaires Quota sampling: a nonprobability method of sample selection based on setting quotas for cases from defined components of the target population; once the criteria and quotas are set, convenience or other nonprobability methods are used to select the sample; quota sampling has the advantage of at least including sample elements from various segments or components of the target population
Random error: any form of error that may occur in a particular instance during data collection, coding, transfer, or analysis; examples, a poorly asked question, a misunderstanding in recording a specific response, or an made in coding data Random selection: selection based on chance and chance along, with no human judgment or preference involved; can be accomplished using a table of random numbers or by selecting sampling elements by chance from a box Randomization: a process of assigning subjects to either the experimenta l or control group by chance Range - a measure of the dispersion or variation among scores; measured as the difference between the lowest and highest score plus 1 Rapid rural appraisal: an approach to data collection using approximations, called proxies, for measurement of indicators, that permits collection of data quickly and inexpensively; often used to help make decisions about the development or future directions of programs; includes an emphasis on the participation of local persons to the maximum extent possible in the conduct of the investigation; also known as participatory rural appraisal Rank order: the result of arranging scores in descending order from the highest to lowest; the highest score is given a rank or 1, the next lower score is given a rank of 2 and so on; rules are followed for assigning tied scores Rapport: is the feeling of trust and confidence an interviewer seeks to establish and maintain with respondents Rate: a measure of how frequently something occurs within the limits of larger population; example, the birth rate is the number of babies born within the population of an area; in social research, rates are expressed in terms of a standardizing base to eliminate differences in the sizes of the populations being examined; a base of 1,000 is used for calculating birth rates; thus, if 55 babies were born in a region with 2,400 persons, the birth rate would be 55/2,400(1000) or 22.9 Ratio: the relation between two frequencies; a ratio is found by dividing one frequency by another; in social research ratios, like rates, are generally expressed in terms of a standardizing base of 100, 1,000, or some other base; example, using a standardizing base of 100, the ratio of females to males in a university with 750 females and 4,500 males is 750/4,500(100) or 17; this days that there are 17 females for every 100 males at the university Ratio measurement: the highest level of measurement, based on a real zero point; thus, any number is a ratio of any other number; for example the age of 40 is twice as large as the age of 20 by a ratio of 2 Raw data: the original data obtained by some form of data collection before data are coded or modified in any way Reactivity: occurs when the process of measurement influences the results obtained; knowing they are being observed, persons, for example, may act differently than they would in normal situations; in that situation, measurement would bereactive Record: has two meanings: (1) the written description of observations made during a session in the course of field research; and (2) the part of a data file, such as a set of data for a single respondent or the full description of a document retrieved from a database Reference: a description of a source cited in a report, such as a book or journal article, prepared in a specified fashion or format
Reliability: is the degree to which an indicator produces essentially the same result with repeated measurements Respondents: the individuals from whom data are obtained, usually by means of interviewing or by completing a questionnaire Response rate: the percentage of successfully completed interviews or self-administered questionnaires over the number that was expected to be completed; the latter usually is the size of the selected sample Response set: the tendency of respondents to answer questions or items in way they answered previous questions; to avoid response set, positive and negative items are mixed up in any set of items, making the respondent think about each item before answering Results: what is discovered when the data are analyzed; findings represent the answer to the question being investigated; also called findings Review of the literature: the process of reading research reports on a topic of interest; learning about the results of research on a particular problem or topic Rounding: the process of establishing the last digit in a number derived from a calculation; rules for rounding are given in Chapter 17, Box 17.1
Sample: a part of target population; samples are selected by either probability or nonprobability methods; with probability samples we can generalize results from a sample to the target population; this cannot be done with nonprobability samples Sample design: the plan prepared for the selection of a sample from a target population; the simple random sample is one kind of sample design Sample frame: a list of the sampling elements or units comprising a target population Sampling element: a single member or unit of the target population; example, a single member of the full time teaching faculty of a university in the spring of 2003; also called a sampling unit Sampling distribution (of the mean): a distribution of means that could be calculated for all possible samples of a given size that could be drawn from a population Sampling error: the error in measuring a variable that occurs because of variations due to random selection of samples; when random samples are used, the amount of sampling error can be calculated and used in estimating population parameters and in conducting tests of statistical significance Sampling interval: the ratio of the size of the sample to the size of the target population; used as the basis for selecting a systemic or interval sample Sampling unit: see sampling element Scale: a composite measure based on multiple items of varying intensity; used for measuring beliefs and attitudes Scale types: in Guttman scaling, scale types are response patterns that match the expected set of responses Scatter plot: a form of graphic presentation of relationships between two variables; each pair is represented by a dot at the intersection of the value for the attribute of one variable, as displayed on the X axis, and the value for the attribute of the other variable, displayed on the Y axis Scientific inquiry: a way of examining the world around us based on logical analysis of what we learn through use of our senses Scientific method: the approach used in scientific inquiry to establish knowledge about the natural world, based on principles for identifying concepts, developing hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data to test hypotheses and generating findings which are incorporated into theories for explaining natural processes Score: any numerical value used to represent an attribute of an indicator or some dimension of a variable Scoring: the process of assigning numbers to the attributes of a variable Scroll: to move up or down the content of a page of a Web site Search engine: a software program specially designed to allow persons to search the Internet to find Web sites of interest
Search service: see search engine Search strategy: the plan developed for selecting relevant records from a database or to guide a search for Web sites Secondary analysis: an investigation based on analysis of previously collected data; example, reanalysis of survey data collected by another researcher or further analysis of data available by a government ministry Selective observation: the tendency to give extra emphasis to certain observations that agree with a preconceived position and to ignore observations that do not agree with the preconception Self-administered questionnaire: a questionnaire designed for completion by respondents without the assistance of an interviewer Self weighted sample: a sample selected so that each segment represents its proportion of the population; using self weighting simplifies analysis of data from samples selected through successive stages, such as area, cluster, or multistage samples Session: a period of observation as part of a field or observational study; also used to describe a period of time for the operation of a focus group Significance level: see level of significance Simple observation: observation of behavior, generally in a natural setting, in which actions are recorded in narrative form and later analyzed; also known as casual observation Simple random sample: a probability sample in each sample element has an equal chance of being selected Skewed: a distribution that differs greatly from a normal distribution; instead of most scores occurring near the mean of the distribution, most scores occur at the high or low end of the distribution Snowball sample - see network sample Social distance scale: see Bogardus social distance scale Social indicators: broad, standardized measures of the quality of life or other socio-economic conditions of geographic areas such as nations, metropolitan areas, or other areas; used to assess health conditions, educational levels, food availability, violence, and other conditions
Software package: see statistical analysis package Spearman rank order coefficient of correlation: measurement of association between scores for two indicators based their rank order instead of the original values of the scores Split half reliability: a measure of the reliability of a scale or other measuring instrument based on the degree of association between two equivalent forms or halves of the scale; data for both forms are collected at the same time Spurious relationship: a false relationship; a spurious relationship becomes apparent when the initial relationship between two indicators disappears after the effect of third variable is taken into account Stakeholders: are individuals who have a strong interest in the outcome of an evaluation; in the evaluation of an educational program, stakeholders could include teachers, administrators, and parents, each of whom might have different expectations for the results of the evaluation Standard deviation: a measure of variability among a set of scores; it is based on the sizes of the deviations of each score from the mean of the scores; in a normal distribution, approximately 68% of the scores lie within ±1 standard deviation, approximately 95% within ±2 standard deviations, and over 99% lie within ±3 standard deviations Standard error: see standard error of the mean Standard error of the mean: the standard deviation of a sampling distribution; it shows how much sample statistics, such as a mean, will vary from one random sample to the next Statistic: is any finding or result based on a sample; when probability samples are used, statistics based on the analysis of data from the sample can be used to estimate the corresponding parameters of the target population from which the sample was drawn Statistical analysis package (or program): a software program designed to analyze data stored in a computer Statistical inference: using the results of a statistical test of significance from a sample to make an estimate about relationships among variables in a population; estimates are based on probability levels Statistical tests of significance: calculations conducted to determine whether differences between means or relationships between variables, for example, are within the range that could be expected due to chance variations that occur from one random sample to the next; statistical tests of significance are based on testing the null hypothesis Stratified random sample: probability samples selected from two or more sub-groups or strata of a target population; example, random samples of males and females drawn separately from the population of university students Structured interviewing: interviewing based on the use of a questionnaire, which, in this kind of use is sometimes called an interview schedule; questions are asked in exactly the same way in all interviews; responses are recorded as given Structured observation: a quantitative observation technique in which the observed behavior is recorded in terms of pre-established categories; tally marks are recorded each time the defined behavior is observed Subject reactivity: in an experiment, describes the tendency of subjects to act differently than normal because they know they are being observed; a threat to the internal validity of the experiment
Subjectivity: the tendency to form opinions or draw conclusions on personal grounds without sufficient regard for empirica l evidence; the opposite of objectivity Subjects: in an experiment, persons included in either the control or experimental groups Summative evaluation: an evaluation carried out after a program has been fully developed; the purpose of a summative evaluation is to see whether the program has achieved the objectives set for it Surfing: the process of moving from one Web site to another using addresses supplied by search engines or links on sites that are visited Survey: a method of gathering data from persons, usually by means of getting them to respond to items comprising a questionnaire; in developing countries most surveys are carried out by interviewing persons Systematic error: any kind of error that affects every case or a substantial number of cases in an investigation; for example, a poorly worded question that gives unreliable responses, a mistake in coding that affects all responses for that item Systematic random sample: a probability sample based on selection of sample elements at a specified interval beginningwith a randomly selected first interval; using a sampling interval of 10, for example, one would select the first sampling element randomly between the first and tenth element on a list and then every tenth element thereafter; also called an interval sample
Table: a way of presenting a large amount of data in very little space; tables can be used to display frequency distributions for one variable or to show bivarite or multivariate relationships among variables Tally sheet: a sheet used is recording the counts or tallys for the frequencies of attributes of variables; example, male and female, as the attributes of the variable gender, could be listed as rows in a tally sheet and tally marks, such as ///, could be recorded for each time either attribute occurred Tallying: the process of counting responses or other data by hand to develop frequency distributions Target population: the specific, concrete population defined in terms of its sampling elements; abstract or general populations are converted to target populations by defining them precisely as possible such as the population of full time employees of a company on the first work day of a given month Telephone survey (interviewing): the process of conducting a survey by means of telephone interviews Test-retest reliability: a technique for estimating the reliability of a measuring instrument based on the degree of association of between scores obtained at one time and those obtained at a later time; a high degree of association would indicate high reliability of the instrument Testing effect: effects on the measurement of an indicator caused by the process of measuring the indicator; in an experiment, obtaining the pretest measurement can change how subjects respond to the posttest measurement of the same variable; a threat to the internal validity of an experiment Theoretical framework: a set of theoretical statements used for deriving a hypothesis or for supporting an explanation for some behavior Theory: the logical expression of relationships among abstract concepts; generally developed to explain a set of related behaviors or events Time series analysis: analysis using data available for a number of points in time for the same indicator; can be used to establish trends or changes in social indicators or other variables Time series design: plan for data collection and analysis based on repeated measurement for a variable at two or more times, such analyses are used to measure changes or trends in variables over time Trend studies (designs): investigations undertaken to measure changes that have occurred in variables; data are collected for variables at two or more points and compared to see what changes or trend is found; trend studies may involve two or more points for data collection in the past or past data collection supplemented with data for the variable at the present time
Triangulation: collection and comparison of data from two or more sources or using two or more methods of data collection; triangulation is important in qualitative investigations to ensure that observations are accurately recorded and interpreted; an example would include collecting data for some indicators by means of observation, from interviewing several key informants, and by checking observations against available data True experiment: a technique for testing hypotheses under carefully controlled conditions, where the experimental orindependent variable is administered to the experimental group but not to an equivalent control group and measurements of the dependent variable are compared between the two groups following the experiment; also called a classical experiment True value: the actual or real value of a score or other measurement; because of random and systematic errors that can and do occur in research, we seldom know the true value of anything we measure (The) t test: a statistical test to determine if the differences between two means exceed the difference that could be due to sampling error Two group, posttest only design: a form of quasi- experiment based on an experimental group and a control group (often a nonequivalent control group) in which data are obtained only after the experimental variable has occurred; only posttest data are obtained and compared for the two groups Type: any group or category of persons sharing a common set of characteristics that distinguish them from others; in social research, types are constructed by an investigator from data describing the special characteristics of respondents; example, an official may be classified as the "bureaucratic type" based on his or her obsessive attention to detailed rules and regulations and desire to please his or her superiors Typology: a classification of persons or groups based on distinctive types created by the investigator for the purposes of analysis; typologies are useful as measures for dependent variables but are hard to interpret as independent variables
Unidimensional: defining a concept so that it has only one dimension or measurable set of characteristics Unit of analysis: the entity used as the basis for combining data for analysis; may be individuals, families, other groups, organizations, geographic areas, or other entities Univariate analysis: analysis of a single indicator; univariate analysis is generally the first step in the analysis of a body of data; it is undertaken to describe each variable in terms of measures of central tendency (mean, median or mode) and variability (range, variance or standard deviation) Universal Resource Locator (URL): the unique address of each Web site Unobtrusive measurement: any technique of data collection that does not influence the results obtained; for example, observing how persons are dressed and using this as an indicator of social status, analyzing data already collected; also called nonreactive measures Unstructured interviewing: a flexible form of interviewing, more in the style of a conversation; the interviewer adjusts the timing and content of questions to be asked and seeks to obtain full answers in the respondent's own words Unstructured observation: observation of behavior or events as they occur, generally in a natural setting; the action being observed is described in narrative form; participant observation is a form of unstructured observation Unweighted index: an index in which the indicators making up the index are assigned equal value Unweighted score: responses to items are simply added to form a composite score; as distinguished from a weighted score in which responses to some items are given more importance by assigning a greater value to them
Valid frequency distribution: a frequency distribution based on the number of useable responses obtained for an indicator; example, if 68 respondents out of a sample 75 provided useable responses to an item, a valid frequency distribution would be based on an N of 68 rather than the N of 75 for the sample Valid percentage distribution: a set of percentage based on the number of useable responses obtained for a variable; example, if 68 respondents out of a sample 75 provided useable responses to an item, a valid percentage distribution would be based on an N of 68 rather than the N of 75 for the sample Validity: the extent to which an indicator measures a given concept or one of its dimensions Value judgment: a statement or opinion based on one's beliefs or values and not on empirical evidence; Variable: any characteristic that varies; that can take on two or more numerical values or has two or more qualities; the various values or qualities of a variable are its attributes Variance: a measure of dispersion or variability among scores in a distribution; variance is the mean of the squared deviations of each score from the mean of the distribution
Web address: see Universal Resource Locator Web site: an electronic source of information accessible through the Internet, the worldwide telecommunication network and software that links computers to Web sites Web survey: a survey conducted by post |